Germany
In 1866 Bismarck provoked Austria into declaring war (Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks
War). A number of other German states - Bavaria, Nassau, Hessen-Kassel, Hannover, joined the Austrian side. The Prussians
were victorious in the Battle of Sadowa (Königgrätz), and quickly a piece was concluded. Austria ceded Holstein to Prussia
and withdrew from the German Confederation. It also ceded Venetia to Italy, which gained Bismarck Italy's goodwill. Bismarck's
demands had been moderate in order to facilitate good German-Austrian relations afterwards. Prussia annexed Holstein, Hannover,
Nassau, Hessen-Kassel and the city of Frankfurt (which had been neutral during the war). Napoleon III wanted to gain territory
for France and eyed at Luxemburg, a concession Bismarck was willing to make. However, Germany's public opinion was strongly
against it, and Bismarck gave in, placing Prussian troops into the fortress of Luxemburg (1867), angering Napoleon III.
French diplomats were relying on old alliances
with the southern German principalities believed to protect the interests of the dynasties ruling these states, as well as
of their population. They were unaware that the governments of Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden had signed secret alliances
with Prussia, and that a large part of their people avidly supported the idea of a unified German state. Later
in 1871, Prussia declared a unified German state and the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm was born.
When France declared war in 1870, Prussia reacted
quickly. The initial stages of the war went well for Germany but changes in the French military leadership and domestic problems
in France which required Louis Napoleon’s attention, leaving the French military to actually run the war, meant that
the war soon became a stalemate with only a series of skirmishes.
Germany was still angry with Russia over the
French Foreign Minister Gramont’s proposal to the Russian Ambassador that when French armies stood in Berlin, Russia
might like to take Danzig in return for remaining neutral.
France
French foreign policy under Emperor Napoleon III was lead by the quest for GLOIRE, glory,
and the decade-old Bonapartist policy of breaking the imposed balance of powers on the European continent. France was overly
confident in its recent victories (Crimean War 1853-56, over Austria 1859) and negligent of Prussia's military accomplishments
(against Denmark 1864, against Austria 1866).
France's Interference in and obstruction of the
process of German unification was the main motive which brought Bismarck on collision course with France. When Bismarck in
1867, ordered Prussian troops to garrison Luxemburg, (a member of the German Federation) which Napoleon III strove hard to
annex, France regarded this as a first step in the deterioration of Franco-Prussian relations.
The cause of events which triggered the declaration
of war by France on July 14th 1870 began with the Spanish throne being vacant after the deposition of Queen Isabel II of Spain
(1868). There were two candidates to succeed to the throne, one of them being a Hohenzollern of the Catholic Sigmaringen line.
France's Emperor Napoleon III demanded Prussian king Wilhelm IV. to renounce the candidacy; he complied. Then he demanded
King Wilhelm to renounce any Hohenzollern candidacy for the future, which Wilhelm did not comply with. Bismarck had a shortened
version of the French telegram published in a newspaper, the EMS dispatch. France regarded this as an affront and declared
war.
The initial stages of the war did not go well
for France. Domestic problems soon came to dominate Louis Napoleon’s time and in a rare moment of
genius decided to replace the old generals with younger more dynamic officers who knew how to take advantage of new weapons
– the Chassepot Rifle and the Mitrailleuse.
The French fought the Prussians to a standstill. Over the next years hostilities continued
but no clear victor emerged in the war. Finally in 1875 an armistice was signed bringing an end to
open conflict between France and new German Empire. To counter German influence on the continent France
entered into a formal alliance with Russia and Denmark. France has continued to push it colonial ambitions
throughout Africa and else where. Relations with France have become very strained with the USA over their
Mexican expedition and the close ties America has developed with
Austria
The reorganization of Austria and Hungary was made possible by the Ausgleich [compromise]
of 1867, a constitutional compromise between Hungarian aspirations for independence and Emperor Francis Joseph's desire for
a strong, centralized empire as a source of power after Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The Hungarians
gained control of their internal affairs in return for agreeing to a centralized foreign policy and continued union of the
Austrian and Hungarian crowns in the Hapsburg ruler. Austria’s attention has turned east towards
Russia and its focus is on expanding eastward while checking Russian Pan-Slavic influence.
USA
The American Ambassador to Prussia, George Bancroft, said at the Foreign Office in Berlin
on 12th October 1870 that leading statesmen and public opinion in the USA regarded the present war as an act of defence by
the German side, with the object being to protect Germany against further wars of aggression by her western neighbour, of
which there had been many during the previous three centuries, by establishing a more secure frontier. Resentment
towards Britain was still strong given their perceived support for South during the American Civil War and there is general
sympathy towards the Fenians. America continues its westward expansion but is again eyeing British territories to the north.
America is also wary of France especially after the French disastrous attempts in Mexico.
Italy
Italy who was allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian war has continued to establish
strong ties with the new German Empire and has been helping to facilitate German expansion into Africa especially after the
French invasion and subsequent occupation of Tunisia which Italy coveted as her own. Germany has
helped Italy in its development of new war vehicles. France has become increasing worried about the strong
ties between Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany and King Umberto of Italy. Italy has joined the Triple Alliance which is the treaty
by which Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy to support each other militarily in the event of an attack against any of them
by two or more great powers. Germany and Italy additionally undertook to support one another in the event of attack by France.
Great Britain
During this period the acquisition of territory and of further trading concessions continued
(promoted by strategic considerations and aided or justified by philanthropic motivations), reaching its peak when Victoria,
at Disraeli's instigation, had herself crowned Empress of India in 1876. From 1868 to 1880 political life
in Great Britain was dominated by Benjamin Disraeli and William E. Gladstone, who differed dramatically over domestic and
foreign policy. Disraeli, who had attacked Gladstone for failing to defend Britain's imperial interests, pursued an active
foreign policy, determined by considerations of British prestige and the desire to protect the route to India. Under Disraeli
(1874–80) the British acquired the Transvaal, the Fiji Islands, and Cyprus, fought frontier wars in Africa and Afghanistan,
and became the largest shareholder in the Suez Canal Company. Gladstone strongly condemned Disraeli's expansionist policies,
but his later ministries involved Britain in Egypt, Afghanistan, and Uganda. Britain had become wary of
Imperial German moves on the continent and especially German’s desire to establish a colonial empire. Britain has entered
into alliances with France and Denmark to help curb Germany’s growing influence. In North America,
there are concerns over the growing military strength of the USA following the end of the Civil War and sabre rattling rhetoric
that has been coming out of some US politicians and especially the general sympathy given to the Fenians.
Ottoman Empire
Abd-ul-Hamid II was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from August 31, 1876.
In Germany, he sees the future friend of his empire. He has employed Germans for the reorganization of his finances
and his army. Abd-ul-Hamid is determined to maintain his empire, to resist the encroachments
of foreigners, and to gradually take the reins of absolute power into his own hands (for he rightfully distrusted his ministers).
Abd-ul-Hamid has always resisted the pressure
of the European powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to overwhelming force, while posing as the champion
of Islam against aggressive Christendom. Pan Islamic propaganda is encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman
Empire — often an obstacle to government — are curtailed; the new railway to the holy places of Mecca and Medina
has pressed on, and emissaries have been sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the Caliph's supremacy.
Battle of El Garif
